The point of view: towards a social psychology of relativity

The explanation of social behaviour requires an understanding of individual orientations to social issues as these exist relative to others. This thesis argues that whilst the attitude concept and social representations have illuminated certain aspects of social behaviour, both are handicapped by a restricted focus. The former’s focus on the evaluation of attitude objects excludes a reference to wider societal processes. The latter provides an account of societal contingencies, but excludes an explanation of individual orientations towards objects and issues in the social environment. This thesis postulates the point of view concept to bridge this gap, that provides an explanation of social behaviour at the situational level. This complements attitude and social representations in a nested, multilevel explanation of social behaviour. The point of view is defined as an outlook towards a social event, expressed as a claim, which can be supported by an argument of opinion based on a system of knowledge from which it derives its logic. It reflects an individual’s orientation towards a social object, relative to others. This thesis has demonstrated, in a series of empirical studies, that the point of view can be typified in three categories. A monological point of view is closed to another’s perspective. A dialogical point of view acknowledges another’s perspective but dismisses it as wrong. A metalogical point of view acknowledges the relativity of its’ perspective, and concedes to an alternative the possibility of being right. These different types were demonstrated to be characterised by differences in positioning and in individuals’ capacity to fit a given social reality. Such relational outcomes accrue as a function of the socio-cognitive structure of points of view in relation with another perspective. This thesis demonstrates that points of view, alongside attitudes and social representations, provides a multilevel explanation of social behaviou

Social representations: a revolutionary paradigm?

Against the prevailing view that progress in science is characterized by the progressive accumulation of knowledge, Thomas Kuhn’s Structure of Scientific Revolutions of 1962 introduced the idea of revolutionary paradigm shifts. For Kuhn, everyday science is normal science in which scientists are engaged in problem solving activities set in the context of a widely accepted paradigm that constitutes a broad acceptance of a fundamental theoretical framework, an agreement on researchable phenomena and on the appropriate methodology. But, on occasions normal science throws up vexing issues and anomalous results. In response, some scientists carry on regardless, while others begin to lose confidence in the paradigm and look to other options, namely rival paradigms. As more and more scientists switch allegiance to the rival paradigm, the revolution gathers pace, supported by the indoctrination of students through lectures, academic papers and textbooks. In response to critics, including Lakatos who suggested that his depiction reduced scientific progress to mob psychology, Kuhn offered a set of criteria that contributed to the apparent ‘gestalt switch’ from the old to the new paradigm. But that is another story, as indeed is Kuhn’s claim that the social sciences are pre-paradigmatic – in other words, that the only consensus is that there is no consensus

Measuring attitudes and points of view : social judgment of proposals for the revision of student stipends in higher education

This paper revisits a cognitive debate concerning social judgment and the measurement of attitudes. Whilst use of the Likert scale is pervasive in social research, this paper demonstrates that this method fails to address a critical psychological operation in social judgment, that of interacting with an alternative proposal from the perspective of another. This paper reports a study undertaken with students at the University of Malta (N=247) concerning the issue of revision of the student stipend system. Student attitudes regarding this issue were highly unfavourable to proposals suggesting the curbing of stipends. We hypothesized that strongly held attitudes as well as high ego-­‐relatedness would be associated with closed-­‐mindedness, in terms of the explicit rejection of alternative proposals. Our hypotheses were refuted by the data. The findings demonstrate that students are mostly open-­‐minded about alternative proposals and open to dialogue. The study shows that high ego-­‐relatedness and strongly held attitudes do not short-­‐circuit cognition into closed-­‐mindedness and that in spite of strongly held attitudes, respondents retained ability for cognitive complexity.peer-reviewe

Civic solidarity : the negotiation of identity in modern societies

Contemporary societies are marked by a diversity of opinions that pertain to different cultural groups. Intercultural encounters have the potential for mutual enrichment but may also contain the seeds for conflict. This paper looks at the processes that bind people together in contemporary societies given their diversity. Durkheim’s distinction between mechanical and organic forms of social solidarity is extended to a third variant: civic solidarity, that refers to the bonds that tie people together in shared interests based on group belonging and the negotiation of identity. This paper argues that social identity processes underlie contemporary forms of social solidarity in defining who one is for others, based on the social representations characteristic of different groups. Consequently, social identities come to define what resources are available to whom by way of social capital, and what intercultural relations are prescribed given specific types of group membership. [excerpt]peer-reviewe

The motivational staircase : evolutionary insights from reversal theory

This paper discusses key insights from Reversal theory in evolutionary perspective. Reversal theory proposes four motivational states that may serve to justify and motivate the act of fighting. Individual soldiers are variably motivated in combat. Consequently, they respond to different construals of war depending on their idiosyncratic motivations. This paper proposes that these variable motivations are rooted in our genetic baggage and that they have evolved to cater for different demands posed by our shared environment for evolutionary adaptation. Specifically, the paper outlines a motivational staircase comprised of four evolutionary stages, namely survival, social instincts, reciprocity and social contract, which have provided us with a range of motivations that bear on individuals’ decisions to act, including combat. The paper concludes by arguing that understanding variable motivational states furthers our understanding of when individuals choose to collaborate with each for competitive purposes.peer-reviewe

Points of view and the reconciliation of identity oppositions : examples from the Maltese in Britain

This paper presents the findings of a case study of Maltese migrants to Britain. In the absence of a cohesive community, Maltese migrants to Britain are required to negotiate a new social reality at the individual level. Previous research has demonstrated that individuals can relate to alternative perspectives in different ways (Sammut & Gaskell, 2010). The present study demonstrates that individuals with different points of view negotiate different identities that serve to position them functionally within one or both social realities. Individuals with monological points of view elaborated exclusive identities that positioned them well in a single social setting. Individuals with dialogical points of view elaborated hierarchical identities, holding their own bicultural identities as superior. This had further positioning ramifications. In contrast, individuals with metalogical points of view elaborated nonhierarchical, chameleon or individualistic identities, by which they positioned themselves functionally in both social settings. For metalogical types, belonging to one group meant that one was neither more nor less a member of the other group. These findings thus add a third type to Duveen’s dualtypology of identity strategies in the reconciliation of oppositional categories.peer-reviewe

Can understanding worldviews help promote a more positive culture of science in Kuwait?

by Martin W. Bauer, Mohammad Sartawi & Gordon Sammut  Formulating policy in any science-related field – health, clean energy, the environment – is not without its challenges. This is particularly true for Kuwait where, despite the abundance of policy papers written by competent bodies, very little implementation and impact is felt on the ground. Social psychology could perhaps provide solutions from its massive body of theories and concepts, and guide more effective policy formulation that would see better uptake by populations and impact on the ground. Specifically, social psychology could offer some insights into the receptivity of various individuals to different types of themes that may be present in the discourse of a given policy area

Negotiating British Muslim identity : everyday concerns of practicing Muslims in London

In situations of cultural change and dislocation, and driven by both a desire to integrate and to preserve cultural identity, Muslims in Britain draw on several sources of cultural knowledge when making sense of their worlds and negotiating their identities. In this article, we present findings from an ethnographic study that demonstrate negotiations of Islamic identities in Britain as they resort to imams for religious advice to resolve everyday challenges. Drawing on social representations and dialogical-self theories, we observe how first-generation British Muslims attempt to negotiate meanings invested in objectifications implicated in everyday situations by drawing on the different sources of social knowledge that they identify with.We argue that the interobjective negotiation of different sources of cultural knowledge also entails identity negotiations resulting from the different positions taken with regards to the objectifications implicated. These identity negotiations also reflect the interplay between identity processes that maintain collective identifications and others that are individuating. The findings show that the experience of cultural change and the tensions that may arise between aspects of different cultures are also reflected and experienced within the self. These may sometimes be difficult to cope with and resolve.peer-reviewe

National strategy for health research and innovation

In 2011, the Malta Council for Science and Technology (MCST) commissioned the Development of a dedicated strategy for health research and innovation in line with its mandate from Government to identify areas of national priority and design and to also implement strategic approaches to enhance economic competitiveness and quality of life. The Strategy was drawn up by a steering group which also included people from outside the health sector, to ensure that it also keeps note of the economic side of things.peer-reviewe